Post by a Chunk on Mar 1, 2019 17:38:46 GMT
Design Patterns in FPS Levels
by Kenneth Hullett and Jim Whitehead
Read this article at our new site HERE: www.nextleveldesign.org/index.php?/featured-content/articles/design-patterns-in-fps-levels-r55/
In this 8 page paper, Ken Hullett and Jim Whitehead seek to more clearly define "how levels create gameplay". It's written in a very formal and structured manner, which we will try to keep mostly intact. There will be a LOT of sections and examples that are left completely out of our recap here. The authors have requested that their work not be shared in its entirety without permission. Therefore, it's being posted here in a very brief form as an attempt to share their insight while also respecting their request. We strongly suggest following the link at the end of the article and reading their full paper if this subject is of interest to you. In fact, if you know that you want to read the entire paper, we suggest skipping this article entirely and simply reading the paper in full. It will be worth your time. Consider this article a teaser for those who may not be sure whether they wish to read the full piece.
Here's a small part of the introductory statement of the paper:
This paper presents a taxonomy of design patterns that appear in single-player first-person shooter (FPS) levels...
Play in FPS games is divided into discrete levels. Levels are generally designed for single- or multi-player play, but not both...
While level geometry is the most noticeable aspect of the level designer’s work, other considerations are important in the creation of gameplay. Level designers place objects in the world, including weapons, ammunition, and power-ups. They must be sure to provide enough so the player can complete the level, but not so much as to remove all challenge...
When designing an FPS level, there are many factors the designer must consider, including challenge, pacing, and ease of navigation. Though many FPS games have been made, and numerous books have been written on the subject, there is little formal understanding of their level design. The existing literature conveys design lore and industry practice without exploring how levels create gameplay.
Experienced level designers draw from their extensive knowledge of existing games when they create a level...
Presently, there is no structured way for experienced designers to pass on this knowledge to less experienced designers. A more formal framework would improve designers’ abilities to communicate design ideas as well as provide a reference for possible features to incorporate into levels.
The design patterns presented in this paper were developed from an analysis of single-player levels, and therefore have the greatest applicability to single-player level design; they can also be applied to many situations that arise in multi-player level design. The patterns are described in terms of their intended use, effect on gameplay, and variations within the pattern. Examples from popular commercial games are given.
For level designers the problem is creating an entertaining and engaging experience for the player, and the solution is in how they design the level. We adapt the above to define characteristics of a pattern language for the domain of level design, described in detail below:
• Noticing and naming common structures that produce specific types of gameplay,
• Describing the key characteristics of these structures and how they affect gameplay,
• Helping the designer address level design concerns in a logical way, and
• Allowing for different approaches to create the desired gameplay.
Play in FPS games is divided into discrete levels. Levels are generally designed for single- or multi-player play, but not both...
While level geometry is the most noticeable aspect of the level designer’s work, other considerations are important in the creation of gameplay. Level designers place objects in the world, including weapons, ammunition, and power-ups. They must be sure to provide enough so the player can complete the level, but not so much as to remove all challenge...
When designing an FPS level, there are many factors the designer must consider, including challenge, pacing, and ease of navigation. Though many FPS games have been made, and numerous books have been written on the subject, there is little formal understanding of their level design. The existing literature conveys design lore and industry practice without exploring how levels create gameplay.
Experienced level designers draw from their extensive knowledge of existing games when they create a level...
Presently, there is no structured way for experienced designers to pass on this knowledge to less experienced designers. A more formal framework would improve designers’ abilities to communicate design ideas as well as provide a reference for possible features to incorporate into levels.
The design patterns presented in this paper were developed from an analysis of single-player levels, and therefore have the greatest applicability to single-player level design; they can also be applied to many situations that arise in multi-player level design. The patterns are described in terms of their intended use, effect on gameplay, and variations within the pattern. Examples from popular commercial games are given.
For level designers the problem is creating an entertaining and engaging experience for the player, and the solution is in how they design the level. We adapt the above to define characteristics of a pattern language for the domain of level design, described in detail below:
• Noticing and naming common structures that produce specific types of gameplay,
• Describing the key characteristics of these structures and how they affect gameplay,
• Helping the designer address level design concerns in a logical way, and
• Allowing for different approaches to create the desired gameplay.
After the Introduction, the authors move on to the subject of Design Patterns:
The use of design patterns to better understand levels is inspired by their use in software engineering, which were in turn inspired by design patterns in architecture...
Björk et al. extend this work by studying how players interact with games and how entities in a game interact with each other. They identify over 200 patterns in game design ranging from the basic building blocks of games, such as the game world, to abstract concepts like player collaboration and immersion. The patterns are organized in broad categories such as “Patterns for Goals” and “Patterns for Narrative Structure.” Patterns are described in terms of how they are used, the choices a designer must make when using them, their consequences and relationships to other patterns. These patterns do not specifically deal with level design, but do relate to some level design concerns, such as balancing, goals, locations, and objects.
For example, one pattern identified by Björk et al. is Pick-ups, described as “elements that exist in the game world and can be collected by players.” They go on to describe how pick-ups are used in a variety of games and the considerations a designer must make when choosing whether to include them or not. They describe general consequences of pick-ups, but they do not describe the immediate effects they have on a player’s behavior or the flow of a game. The level design patterns presented in this paper address these considerations.
Björk et al. suggest four ways patterns can be used to support game design: idea generation, structured development, solving design problems, and communication. The level design patterns identified in this paper support these same uses.
Björk et al. extend this work by studying how players interact with games and how entities in a game interact with each other. They identify over 200 patterns in game design ranging from the basic building blocks of games, such as the game world, to abstract concepts like player collaboration and immersion. The patterns are organized in broad categories such as “Patterns for Goals” and “Patterns for Narrative Structure.” Patterns are described in terms of how they are used, the choices a designer must make when using them, their consequences and relationships to other patterns. These patterns do not specifically deal with level design, but do relate to some level design concerns, such as balancing, goals, locations, and objects.
For example, one pattern identified by Björk et al. is Pick-ups, described as “elements that exist in the game world and can be collected by players.” They go on to describe how pick-ups are used in a variety of games and the considerations a designer must make when choosing whether to include them or not. They describe general consequences of pick-ups, but they do not describe the immediate effects they have on a player’s behavior or the flow of a game. The level design patterns presented in this paper address these considerations.
Björk et al. suggest four ways patterns can be used to support game design: idea generation, structured development, solving design problems, and communication. The level design patterns identified in this paper support these same uses.
And now we move on to Level Design:
There are many books on level design written from an industry perspective. They discuss common practices and provide instruction on tools for aspiring level designers.
The aspects examined can be broadly categorized as relating to gameplay – pacing, tension, and challenge – or space – spatial configurations and how the player navigates.
Pacing:
Pacing is the overall flow of a level resulting from raising or lowering tempo, tension, challenge, or difficulty throughout the level...
Designers can plot the expected pacing as a sequence of gameplay elements. Playtesting can then be used to see how closely the player’s experience matches the designer’s expectations, leading to a series of iterative changes until the designer is satisfied.
Tension:
Tension is the mental strain a game can create in the player as they struggle to survive or complete objectives. Level designers use tension to affect pacing. For example, NPCs can create tension by urging the player to move through the level faster.
Challenge:
The best way to create challenge is to provide clear goals whose attainment is uncertain. If the goal is unclear, the player will become frustrated. If the goal is too easy to attain, the player will become bored. Furthermore, if the goal is long range, there should be feedback given to the player that communicates progress towards the goal.
Segmentation:
Segmentation is a broad concept that can be applied to the examination of levels both in terms of gameplay and space. It refers to methods for breaking down aspects of the game into smaller elements...
Spatial Configurations:
When designing a building, the architect includes architectural devices to create specific effects, such as customizing a space to a particular use...
Some architectural principles can be applied by level designers to create spaces for gameplay, including having a clear path through the level, using different spatial organizations such as linear or hub-and-spoke, or including unique elements to break up the design.
Navigation:
A key use of spatial configuration in levels is in providing navigational cues to the player. This is particularly true in FPS levels as they are generally large, complex environments...
Examples include features that attract the player’s attention, use of light and contrast, and directions from NPCs.
The aspects examined can be broadly categorized as relating to gameplay – pacing, tension, and challenge – or space – spatial configurations and how the player navigates.
Pacing:
Pacing is the overall flow of a level resulting from raising or lowering tempo, tension, challenge, or difficulty throughout the level...
Designers can plot the expected pacing as a sequence of gameplay elements. Playtesting can then be used to see how closely the player’s experience matches the designer’s expectations, leading to a series of iterative changes until the designer is satisfied.
Tension:
Tension is the mental strain a game can create in the player as they struggle to survive or complete objectives. Level designers use tension to affect pacing. For example, NPCs can create tension by urging the player to move through the level faster.
Challenge:
The best way to create challenge is to provide clear goals whose attainment is uncertain. If the goal is unclear, the player will become frustrated. If the goal is too easy to attain, the player will become bored. Furthermore, if the goal is long range, there should be feedback given to the player that communicates progress towards the goal.
Segmentation:
Segmentation is a broad concept that can be applied to the examination of levels both in terms of gameplay and space. It refers to methods for breaking down aspects of the game into smaller elements...
Spatial Configurations:
When designing a building, the architect includes architectural devices to create specific effects, such as customizing a space to a particular use...
Some architectural principles can be applied by level designers to create spaces for gameplay, including having a clear path through the level, using different spatial organizations such as linear or hub-and-spoke, or including unique elements to break up the design.
Navigation:
A key use of spatial configuration in levels is in providing navigational cues to the player. This is particularly true in FPS levels as they are generally large, complex environments...
Examples include features that attract the player’s attention, use of light and contrast, and directions from NPCs.
Next, we take a look at Pattern Collection:
The descriptions of the patterns explain how they can be used, the concerns designers must address, and the gameplay created. The fields are listed below:
Description – A high level description of the pattern and the major design considerations.
Affordances – Aspects of the pattern that can be varied by the designer.
Consequences – A description of the gameplay the pattern creates.
Relationships – How the pattern interacts with other patterns.
Examples – Some examples from popular commercial games that illustrate the pattern.
The patterns are grouped into one of four following categories based on the type of gameplay produced.
Description – A high level description of the pattern and the major design considerations.
Affordances – Aspects of the pattern that can be varied by the designer.
Consequences – A description of the gameplay the pattern creates.
Relationships – How the pattern interacts with other patterns.
Examples – Some examples from popular commercial games that illustrate the pattern.
The patterns are grouped into one of four following categories based on the type of gameplay produced.
Category 1 - Patterns for Positional Advantage:
These patterns all result in one entity gaining an advantage in position over another entity. A positional advantage usually affords opportunities to attack other entities without being exposed to counter attack.
Sniper Location:
Description:
Sniper locations are one of the most common patterns. A character in a sniper location can attack other characters with long-range weapons while remaining protected. Any elevated position that overlooks some portion of the level is potentially a sniper location. They may be intended for use by either players, NPCs, or both.
Creating a sniper location for use by an enemy rather than the player requires additional consideration. Enemies positioned in the sniper location may require special scripting to create the desired behavior; they should remain in place, using cover if available, and engage the player with long range weapons.
Affordances:
• The height of the sniper location over the main part of the level
• How large of an area is available for the sniper
• The amount of cover available for the sniper
• The size of the area that the sniper can cover from the sniper location
• How accessible the sniper location is from the area overlooked
Consequences:
When confronted with an enemy sniper location, the player is forced to make careful use of cover or seek alternate routes to avoid being exposed to fire. This can increase the tension and slow the pace of a level while creating a challenge for the player.
A player sniper location generally slows the pace of a level while lowering tension as the player is able to engage enemy NPCs without being exposed to enemy fire. However, if the sniper location is not isolated from the rest of the level, the player will have to defend the access point as well, increasing tension.
Relationships:
Sniper locations interact with many other patterns. They may be placed to cover an arena or a choke point. Most stationary turrets are also sniper locations. A shooting gallery is specialized type of sniper location.
Examples:
In the level “Route Kanal” of Half-Life 2, the player encounters an enemy sniper location, shown in Figure 2. It is high above the player’s position, but has very little cover. The player can engage the enemy NPCs, but is exposed and needs to be cautious.
There is a sniper location in the level “Corinth River” of Killzone 2. The player is on an elevated walkway overlooking a medium sized area containing enemy NPCs. Both the player and enemy NPCs have cover, but by looking down from above, the player is able to locate the enemy NPCs and engage them.
Figure 2: Sniper location in Half-Life 2
Sniper Location:
Description:
Sniper locations are one of the most common patterns. A character in a sniper location can attack other characters with long-range weapons while remaining protected. Any elevated position that overlooks some portion of the level is potentially a sniper location. They may be intended for use by either players, NPCs, or both.
Creating a sniper location for use by an enemy rather than the player requires additional consideration. Enemies positioned in the sniper location may require special scripting to create the desired behavior; they should remain in place, using cover if available, and engage the player with long range weapons.
Affordances:
• The height of the sniper location over the main part of the level
• How large of an area is available for the sniper
• The amount of cover available for the sniper
• The size of the area that the sniper can cover from the sniper location
• How accessible the sniper location is from the area overlooked
Consequences:
When confronted with an enemy sniper location, the player is forced to make careful use of cover or seek alternate routes to avoid being exposed to fire. This can increase the tension and slow the pace of a level while creating a challenge for the player.
A player sniper location generally slows the pace of a level while lowering tension as the player is able to engage enemy NPCs without being exposed to enemy fire. However, if the sniper location is not isolated from the rest of the level, the player will have to defend the access point as well, increasing tension.
Relationships:
Sniper locations interact with many other patterns. They may be placed to cover an arena or a choke point. Most stationary turrets are also sniper locations. A shooting gallery is specialized type of sniper location.
Examples:
In the level “Route Kanal” of Half-Life 2, the player encounters an enemy sniper location, shown in Figure 2. It is high above the player’s position, but has very little cover. The player can engage the enemy NPCs, but is exposed and needs to be cautious.
There is a sniper location in the level “Corinth River” of Killzone 2. The player is on an elevated walkway overlooking a medium sized area containing enemy NPCs. Both the player and enemy NPCs have cover, but by looking down from above, the player is able to locate the enemy NPCs and engage them.
Figure 2: Sniper location in Half-Life 2
The above is of Sniper positioning one of many example of Positional Advantage provided in the paper. Other examples cover Galleries and Choke Points.
Category 2 - Patterns for Large-Scale Combat:
These patterns provide areas for combat gameplay, with the player either engaging large numbers of enemy NPCs or a single powerful enemy NPC (a boss fight).
Arena:
Description:
Easily the most common pattern, an arena is an open area or wide corridor where the player encounters some form of heavy resistance, either waves of enemy NPCs, or a boss fight. Designers should ensure that the player is not overwhelmed. Cover and items can be placed to allow the player to make continual progress towards their goal.
In a boss fight the player may have to find the boss’ weak spot, or hit it a certain number of times. The designer must communicate the method of defeating the boss to the player. For example, the player may be provided with a high powered weapon just before entering the arena.
Affordances:
• The size of the arena (length, width, height)
• The amount of cover available in the arena
Consequences:
If the player is outnumbered and lacks powerful weapons, they are forced to move deliberately and make use of cover. This increases challenge and slows the pace. If the player has a powerful weapon or is otherwise not seriously threatened, the effect is to increase pace as the player quickly eliminates large numbers of enemy NPCs.
Relationships:
An arena can contain sniper locations or turrets. Entrances to an arena may be choke points.
Examples:
The Gears of War level “Trial by Fire” contains several arenas. One example is a room of medium width and length and a low ceiling. There is a significant amount of cover, which is used by both the player and enemy NPCs.
The level “Corinth River” of Killzone 2 begins with a large arena. The player and friendly NPCs engage enemy NPCs in a space with medium width and depth, with large amounts of cover. Some NPCs are positioned at elevated sniper locations with turrets.
Arena:
Description:
Easily the most common pattern, an arena is an open area or wide corridor where the player encounters some form of heavy resistance, either waves of enemy NPCs, or a boss fight. Designers should ensure that the player is not overwhelmed. Cover and items can be placed to allow the player to make continual progress towards their goal.
In a boss fight the player may have to find the boss’ weak spot, or hit it a certain number of times. The designer must communicate the method of defeating the boss to the player. For example, the player may be provided with a high powered weapon just before entering the arena.
Affordances:
• The size of the arena (length, width, height)
• The amount of cover available in the arena
Consequences:
If the player is outnumbered and lacks powerful weapons, they are forced to move deliberately and make use of cover. This increases challenge and slows the pace. If the player has a powerful weapon or is otherwise not seriously threatened, the effect is to increase pace as the player quickly eliminates large numbers of enemy NPCs.
Relationships:
An arena can contain sniper locations or turrets. Entrances to an arena may be choke points.
Examples:
The Gears of War level “Trial by Fire” contains several arenas. One example is a room of medium width and length and a low ceiling. There is a significant amount of cover, which is used by both the player and enemy NPCs.
The level “Corinth River” of Killzone 2 begins with a large arena. The player and friendly NPCs engage enemy NPCs in a space with medium width and depth, with large amounts of cover. Some NPCs are positioned at elevated sniper locations with turrets.
Follow the link at the end of this article to read much more info on the categories above, and these which we've not included here:
Category 3 - Patterns for Alternate Gameplay
Category 4 - Patterns for Alternate Routes
The authors then use the Bioshock Level "Medical Pavilion" as a case-study example of the patterns described above. Here's a brief snippet of this section:
The initial goal of the level is to exit the level and meet up with the friendly NPC who urges the player on throughout the level via radio messages. However, this goal is not straightforward; the player discovers the exit is locked and the key is held by the level’s main boss. The player must explore most of the level in order to gather items needed to engage the boss, then locate and defeat him. The level also contains some side areas that are not necessary to complete to finish the level, but do provide additional items to help the player.
The first instances of patterns the player encounters are an arena in combination with a turret. The arena is narrow, long, and high, with an upper level from which enemy NPCs emerge. There is little cover available to the player, while the enemy NPCs have a moderate amount of cover. To compensate for the lack of cover, the turret is automatic, friendly, and mobile. It moves throughout the arena and engages the enemy NPCs, allowing the player to stay reasonably protected and engage the enemies. Though this section creates tension due to the large number of aggressive enemy NPCs, the pace remains low as the player doesn’t have to move or act quickly.
After the arena, the player encounters a stronghold consisting of a small room. The room has only minimal cover, and a single, narrow entrance that is a choke point. The player can also be engaged by enemy NPCs in a nearby sniper location. The player can use the available cover and engage the enemy NPCs moving through the choke point. The pace and challenge of the level is increased in this section due to the large numbers of enemy NPCs engaging the player and the minimal amount of cover available.
...
While this level makes use of the majority of the design patterns described in this paper, it lacks any instances of the split level or gallery patterns. These patterns work best in levels with a high degree of verticality, which this level lacks. There are areas with vertical offset, but there are few large open areas where it would be appropriate to include these patterns. Including them would result in a more open, expansive level. Tight, constrained levels are more appropriate to the game’s theme, and open areas would break that immersion. This level also lacks any vehicle sections. Again this does not fit with the level’s aesthetic.
The first instances of patterns the player encounters are an arena in combination with a turret. The arena is narrow, long, and high, with an upper level from which enemy NPCs emerge. There is little cover available to the player, while the enemy NPCs have a moderate amount of cover. To compensate for the lack of cover, the turret is automatic, friendly, and mobile. It moves throughout the arena and engages the enemy NPCs, allowing the player to stay reasonably protected and engage the enemies. Though this section creates tension due to the large number of aggressive enemy NPCs, the pace remains low as the player doesn’t have to move or act quickly.
After the arena, the player encounters a stronghold consisting of a small room. The room has only minimal cover, and a single, narrow entrance that is a choke point. The player can also be engaged by enemy NPCs in a nearby sniper location. The player can use the available cover and engage the enemy NPCs moving through the choke point. The pace and challenge of the level is increased in this section due to the large numbers of enemy NPCs engaging the player and the minimal amount of cover available.
...
While this level makes use of the majority of the design patterns described in this paper, it lacks any instances of the split level or gallery patterns. These patterns work best in levels with a high degree of verticality, which this level lacks. There are areas with vertical offset, but there are few large open areas where it would be appropriate to include these patterns. Including them would result in a more open, expansive level. Tight, constrained levels are more appropriate to the game’s theme, and open areas would break that immersion. This level also lacks any vehicle sections. Again this does not fit with the level’s aesthetic.
And then we reach the conclusion, where the authors sum up their findings:
Design patterns describe common FPS level design idioms, expressing cause-effect relationships between level elements and gameplay. Ten patterns are identified here, but there are undoubtedly other, unidentified patterns in the domain of FPS levels, particularly in multi-player levels.
Level design patterns can support level designers in the same way that game design patterns support game designers. They can help designers generate new ideas by combining patterns in previously unexpected ways. Development of levels can be more structured when designers initially block out sections with general descriptions in terms of patterns and fill in details later. Patterns can help solve design problems by identifying elements that create certain types of gameplay, giving the designer guidance on what to add or remove to make adjustments. Finally, they provide a language for communicating ideas about level design, as illustrated in the example above.
Unlike existing work on level design, these level design patterns provide concrete cause-effect explanations that designers can use to organize their thinking, communicate their ideas, and explore design alternatives. Additionally, these design patterns provide a useful, tangible way to teach level design. We anticipate these design patterns will lead to greater understanding of level design in FPS games, and through this, greater innovation in the genre.
Level design patterns can support level designers in the same way that game design patterns support game designers. They can help designers generate new ideas by combining patterns in previously unexpected ways. Development of levels can be more structured when designers initially block out sections with general descriptions in terms of patterns and fill in details later. Patterns can help solve design problems by identifying elements that create certain types of gameplay, giving the designer guidance on what to add or remove to make adjustments. Finally, they provide a language for communicating ideas about level design, as illustrated in the example above.
Unlike existing work on level design, these level design patterns provide concrete cause-effect explanations that designers can use to organize their thinking, communicate their ideas, and explore design alternatives. Additionally, these design patterns provide a useful, tangible way to teach level design. We anticipate these design patterns will lead to greater understanding of level design in FPS games, and through this, greater innovation in the genre.
Source: games.soe.ucsc.edu/sites/default/files/khullett-fdg-camera-ready.pdf
Jim Whitehead Twitter: twitter.com/TheJimWhitehead